By Reading Horizons Reading Specialist, Stacy Hurst

“We’ll have to get bigger desks.” “Third graders will be sporting beards.” “It’s about time teachers’ feet are held to the fire.” These are just some responses elicited by proposals to retain students who are not reading on grade level by the end of their third grade year. Third Grade Reading Guarantees have recently been legislated in as many as 13 states in an effort to improve students’ readiness to ‘read to learn’ in grades 4-12. Spurred on with the statistic that 74% of students who are poor readers in third grade continue to struggle in ninth grade (Francis, Shaywitz, Stuebing, Shaywitz, & Fletcher, 1996), policy makers are leading the charge to eliminate the problem.

The state of Florida has been retaining students who do not pass the state reading exam since 2003. Results from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) for reading show that Florida’s fourth graders are scoring above the national average (possibly because their poor readers are still in third grade) while eighth and twelfth graders are generally performing below the national average. However, their scores continue to increase as the number of students qualifying for retention decrease. For example, in 2011, only 13,340 third graders were retained throughout the state as opposed to 27,713 in 2003.

Ohio is one state that has chosen to follow Florida’s example by instituting a similar law starting in the 2012-13 school year. In January, 30% of third graders state-wide were not reading on grade level. In other words, 40,000 students are at risk for repeating third grade unless appropriately intense interventions are put in place. If the interventions fail before the end of the school year, will retention guarantee future grade level performance in reading? 

One report published by the Education Commission of the States communicated that some studies have found that less than half of students who have repeated a grade and attended summer school meet the benchmark standards for promotion. For most struggling students neither retention nor promotion is the answer.

So what is the solution to the nation’s third grade reading slump? Fortunately, the emphasis on third grade reading proficiency has increased the focus on instruction and intervention in grades pre-K through 2nd. Struggling readers can be identified as early as kindergarten or first grade. Many studies have shown that a student who is a poor reader in first grade has a 90% chance of remaining a poor reader (Juel, 1988). Research has also proven that quality classroom instruction in these grade levels is a powerful indicator of whether a student will experience difficulties in learning to read or not (Scanlon & Vellutino, 1996; Snow & Juel, 2005). Furthermore, primary grade teachers have the potential to prevent reading failure with effective instruction (Moats, 1994; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Taylor, Pearson, Clark &Walpole, 1999). In fact, it is now widely acknowledged that many primary grade students who have been identified for Special Education services would not have been identified if general classroom instruction had been explicit, systematic, targeted, and responsive (Clay, 1987; Denton & Mathes, 2003; Lyon, Fletcher, Fuchs, & Chhabra, 2006; Scanlon, Vellutino, Small, Fanuele & Sweeny, 2005; Snow, et al., 1998). 

Quality instruction and intervention in earlier grades can drastically reduce the number of third graders qualifying for retention under such laws.  If K-3rd grade teachers are provided with the support they need for effective implementation of evidence-based strategies as well as customized intervention settings and curricula for struggling readers then the conversation concerning third grade retention will change drastically. When that happens there will be many teachers who will be happy to throw away the order form for bigger desks, put away the shaving cream and extinguish the fire. In the meantime, at least 13 states will need to be prepared for an increased number of third graders.

References

Clay M. Learning to be learning disabled. New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies.1987; 22:155–173.

Denton CA, Mathes PG. Intervention for struggling readers: Possibilities and challenges. In: Foorman BR, editor. Preventing and remediating reading difficulties: Bringing science to scale.Timonium, MD: York Press; 2003. pp. 229–251.

Francis, D. J., Shaywitz, S. E., Stuebing, K. K., Shaywitz, B. A., and Fletcher, J. M. (1996). Developmental lag versus deficit models of reading disability: A longitudinal, individual growth curves analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(1), 3-17.

Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of 54 children from first to fourth grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(4), 437-447.

Lyon GR, Fletcher JM, Fuchs L, Chhabra V. Learning disabilities. In: Mash E, Barkley R, editors.Treatment of childhood disorders. 3rd ed. New York: Guilford; 2006. pp. 512–591.

Moats, L.C. (1994). The missing foundation in teacher education: Knowledge of the structure of spoken and written language. Annals of Dyslexia, 44, 81-102.

Scanlon DM, Vellutino FR. Prerequisite skills, early instruction, and success in first grade reading: Selected results from a longitudinal study. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews. 1996; 2:54–63.

Scanlon DM, Vellutino FR, Small SG, Fanuele DP, Sweeney J. Severe reading difficulties: Can they be prevented? A comparison of prevention and intervention approaches. Exceptionality. 2005; 13:209-227.

Snow CE, Juel C. In The Science of teaching reading: A handbook. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 2005. Teaching children to read: What do we know about how to do it?

Snow CE, Burns S, Griffin P. Preventing reading difficulties in young students. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1998.

Taylor, B., Pearson, P. D., Clark, K., & Walpole, S. (1999). Beating the odds in teaching all children to read. Ann Arbor: Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement. CIERA Report Series 2-0006.

Our Dyslexia Specialist/Teacher Trainer, Shantell Berrett, has a favorite saying she always tells teachers when teaching them how to help struggling readers (including those with dyslexia): “It is far more about the process than the content.”

The strong right brain of dyslexic students offers them many unique strengths, however, tasks that require a set process to be accomplished (and hence, a dominant left brain) are much more difficult for dyslexic students – including language tasks. Despite the obstacle that this presents, it provides valuable insights into how to improve the process that information is taught. Dyslexic students require a clear process in order to understand many concepts (especially how to read) – but, clear instruction is beneficial for every student.

Here are eight tips from Berrett that you can implement in your classroom to better accommodate the learning needs of the dyslexic students (while benefitting all of your students).

1. Provide one step directions at a time.

How it helps dyslexic students:
Because dyslexia is a processing disorder, students with dyslexia have a difficult time processing, prioritizing, and remembering long lists of directions at one time. By only providing one direction at a time, dyslexic students don’t have to process or prioritize multiple steps at one time – assuring that they do exactly what you need them to do. This decreases frustration both for you and the student. 

How it helps all students:
Even without dyslexia, we are all prone to distractions and forgetfulness. By only giving one direction at a time, you eliminate the possibility of students’ forgetting what they need to do, and you won’t have to repeat directions nearly as often.

2. Provide visual representation of all oral instruction whenever possible.

How it helps dyslexic students:
Because dyslexic students have a dominant right brain, their brain isn’t naturally wired to engage the left side of the brain – the reason for their difficulty with reading. In order to rewire the brain, dyslexic students’ need multi-sensory instruction that engages multiple areas of the brain. By connecting visual, auditory, and kinesthetic cues to each concept, multiple areas of the brain are activated – allowing dyslexic students to make new brain connections that help them strengthen their left brain and better remember information.  

How it helps all students:
Again, even without dyslexia, we are all prone to forgetfulness. By connecting multiple stimuli to a concept, students’ better remember and absorb new information.

3. Preview & Review

How it helps dyslexic students:
By previewing each concept before instruction, dyslexic students can better organize, filter, and prioritize new information. Reviewing each concept helps dyslexic students connect, store, and categorize information that was just presented. Both of which, help with the Executive Function Deficits associated with dyslexia.

How it helps all students:
One of the most effective ways we learn any concept is through repetition. The more we hear and practice a concept, the more natural and easy to remember it becomes.

4. Pre-warn students when activities are about to change.

How it helps dyslexic students:
It can be difficult for some dyslexic students to switch their attention between activities. Many students need some prep time to know that an activity is about to end and they will be doing something different soon. This can also help students be patient when they want to move on to a new activity. Because reading tasks can strain dyslexic students, letting them know that they only have to exert themselves for 5 more minutes can help them keep trying. Give a time warning five minutes before an activity is going to change, then two minutes, then one minute (e.g., 5 more minutes of reading time, now two until we move to centers…one more minute).

How it helps all students:
Some students, with or without dyslexia, can get so absorbed in an activity that when the class suddenly changes pace they can easily get upset. By helping all students prepare for what is coming, you can avoid upsetting and frustrating students – reducing conflict and creating a better classroom environment for everyone.

5. Avoid habituation* by keeping instruction between 10-15 minutes and provide a variety of activities for practice.

How it helps dyslexic students:
“Due to the problems in inhibition (focus on relevant, suppress the irrelevant), switching attention, and working memory (sustaining effort for coordinating orthography and phonology over time), students with dyslexia and/or dysgraphia are likely to habituate (stop responding to instruction) sooner that children without these disorders. One way to avoid habituation is to vary activities frequently and avoid performing the same activity over and over for a long time.” (Berninger and Wolf. Teaching Students with Dyslexia and Dysgraphia. Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. 2009. P. 146.)

How it helps all students:
Like the above quote says, habituation occurs sooner for dyslexic students, but with enough exposure to a certain stimulus – all students habituate. By keeping instruction novel you better keep the attention of all of your students so they stay engaged and focused on instruction.

*Habituation refers specifically to a type of non-associative learning in which repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to decreased response.

6. Never expect dyslexic students to take notes without a visual outline or a friend to be a note-taker.

How it helps dyslexic students:
Writing tasks are typically very difficult for dyslexic students. This, on top of their difficulties with prioritizing information can make note taking extremely difficult for these students. By providing a outline or assigning them a friend that they can compare notes with, you can help eliminate stress during lectures.

How it helps all students:
Deciding what is important to note during instruction is difficult for many students – having a partner for each student to talk over a lecture with and decide what was important or see if they missed an important point is beneficial for every student.

7. Slow down instruction.

How it helps dyslexic students:
Dyslexic students need additional time to process information. Take your time and be clear. Assess in small intervals if the students are getting what you are modeling/teaching. (Ask them questions and provide opportunities to have them tell you in their own words what you just told them).

How it helps all students:
Taking time to assure student understanding and matching pacing to the needs of your classroom is helpful for every student. Undoubtedly you will have students at varying levels, but as you assess students in small intervals, you can use learning centers that allow students of varying levels to work at their own pace. Also… patience and empathy are arguably more valuable than lesson content.

8. Assume nothing…connect everything.

How it helps dyslexic students:
To adjust to the needs of dyslexic students – it is helpful to teach one concept at a time while you draw connections to prior knowledge and previous instruction with ALL new material. This helps these students make new neural connections that will strengthen their brain.

How it helps all students:
Some students naturally connect new information to what they already know – but many students need to be taught how to connect everything. Even some of your brightest students won’t always draw connections between new information.

To learn more about helping students with dyslexia, watch this free webinar presented by Reading Horizons Dyslexia Specialist, Shantell Berrett:

Dyslexia: From Symptoms to Solutions ›

Pinterest Reference Guide:

By Reading Horizons Reading Specialist, Stacy Hurst

Happy National Poetry Month! This poem is a poem that was written by Lord Cromer of England in 1902. It highlights some of the inconsistencies that seem to exist between spoken and written words in the English language. 

English is not a static language. Historically, it has been shaped and changed over the years by numerous political, social, and multi-cultural influences. Sometimes the change in a word is in the way it is pronounced, like the word sword wherein the ‘w’ used to be heard. Sometimes the change in a word (or words) is in the spelling, like in the words come, son, and love which used to be spelled with the vowel ‘u’ (until the Normans replaced it with an ‘o’ when it preceded the letters m, n, and v because a series of similar-looking letters was difficult to read). Webster changed the spelling of mould to mold and also dropped the ‘u’ in words like color and labor. Shakespeare himself was purported to coin over 1,700 words (Crystal, 2006) of which over half still exist today (e.g. bandit, daunting, laughable, and swagger).

It’s no wonder that teachers and students can become overwhelmed and confused with some English words. However, there is good reason to take heart. Louisa Moats (1995) pointed out that at least 20 sounds in the English language have spellings that are more than 90% predictable, and Pinker noted that “for about eighty-four percent of English words, spelling is completely predictable from regular rules” (1994, p. 190). So the goal for teachers is to teach the very common letter-sound patterns and the history of as many irregular words as possible. When teachers and students understand the consistent patterns of written English, as well as the historical basis of words, they can better understand the regularities and the relatively few irregularities in English words (Henry, 2010).

If you read through the poem again, see if you can explain the seemingly irregular words about which the author wrote. Many are explained within the Reading Horizons methodology (e.g., crazy w explains the pronunciation of the words worse and word). The other words can be explained by learning about the history of the English language (like the aforementioned Norman influence in the spelling of words like done and some). As it turns out, English is not so confusing after all.

References

Crystal, D. (2006). The fight for English. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Henry, M.K. (2010). Words: Integrated decoding and spelling instruction based on word origin and word structure (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Moats, L.C. (1995). Spelling: Development, disability, and instruction. Timonium, MD: York Press.
Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: How the mind creates language. New York: William Morrow & Co.

By Reading Horizons Reading Specialist, Stacy Hurst

This blog post is brought to you by the lowercase letters b and d. They look so similar that you can see where confusion occurs for beginning readers and writers. Letter reversals are frequently seen in the writings of K-2nd grade students whose orthographic representation of each letter is not fully developed. Students who have not properly stored the information in their brain will also manifest the issue when they are reading and come to words that contain the letters b and d. Many parents of younger students have asked me if their child is dyslexic because they reverse letters. I always refer them to this source after I have explained that it is a fairly common occurrence. The trick is to ensure that it is a temporary phenomenon and doesn’t become a bad habit. As a teacher, parent, or friend of the universe, there are things that you can do to help students develop a rapid and accurate recognition of these initially, similar looking letters.

• Focus on one letter at a time. In fact, over-teach one letter before introducing a letter that is similar. One important thing to note is letter formation. Consistently emphasize the proper way to form each letter - ALWAYS. For example, the lowercase letter b ALWAYS starts with a line. The lowercase letter d ALWAYS starts with a circle. It is common for students to draw the line first and then think about where to draw the circle. Break this habit early by constantly reinforcing proper formation.
• Teach the mouth formation for each letter sound. For example, when you say the sound the letter b represents (/b/) your lips are together (in a line like you see at the beginning of the letter b). When you say the sound of letter d (/d/) your lips are open and your tongue is on the roof of your mouth. Use a mirror so students can see their own adorable faces forming the correct sounds associated with each letter.
• Use multi-sensory activities. Some beginning readers and writers struggle with the fine motor skills necessary to form letters correctly. Begin by focusing on proper formation of each letter by first using large motor skills. Activities such as drawing a large version of each letter on a chalkboard or whiteboard, forming the letters in finger paint (pudding is fun too) or shaving cream on a desk (bonus: the desk gets clean and your classroom smells freshly shaven), and forming letters on a buddy’s back and having them guess the letter are fun and simple ways to practice. ALWAYS have the students say the sound of each letter as they are forming it. Keep reading for instructions for one activity that I have found to help students distinguish between b’s and d’s.
• Once they have shown mastery in correctly writing each letter and producing the sound that each letter represents, focus on automaticity. A timed letter sort is a fun way to help practice automatic recognition.  Print multiple copies of the same letters in various fonts so students can apply their knowledge with any text. Then use words that are similar. An example list for words that you could use for a b and d sort would include the words big and dig, dug and bug, brag and drag, bog and dog, and dad and bad.

A cloze activity using words that start with the letters in focus would provide students with more opportunities to apply their newly acquired skill. Timing the activity would help to increase fluency in spelling words that contain the letters that you are focusing on with your student. 

Here is one activity that I have found to be helpful in clearing up some of the confusion for students. For this activity I used one bar from a Twix © candy bar and a mini-sized chocolate donut. It would be ideal if you can find these (since Butterfinger © starts with b). The idea is to emphasize that the letter b starts with a bar (as in candy bar) and the letter d starts with a round shape like a donut.

I always have the student draw the letter and say, “b, /b/” as they are writing the b or “d, /d/ as they are writing the d. It is also helpful to point out that when we read, we read from left to right. In doing so, when you come to a letter that could be a b or a d, the student could look to see what comes first, the bar or the donut to help give them a visual clue as to what the letter is. (Disclaimer: Be aware of food allergies and give students extra P.E. time to run off the calories if you choose to let your students consume the treats involved in the lesson. Also, you will have to weigh (pun intended) the consequences of promoting unhealthy eating over automatic letter recognition).

Here are some pictures of a 2nd grade student (who has been very persistent in his quest to correctly recognize b and d) teaching his 1st grade sister “the trick.” 

Do you know a “trick” that you have found successful when helping students recognize the difference between the letters b and d? If you do, would you share it maybe? 

By Reading Horizons Reading Specialist, Stacy Hurst

In the world of psychology there is a phenomenon called “The Illusion of Explanatory Depth.” In their article on the phenomenon, Rozenblit and Keil (2002) explain that, “People feel they understand complex phenomena with far greater precision, coherence, and depth than they really do; they are subject to an illusion – an illusion of explanatory depth.” Basically, people think they know more about things than they really do. For example, if you asked 100 people on the street if they know how a toaster works, many, if not most would say that they do. Most people have successfully used a toaster, after all. If you then ask them to explain exactly how a toaster works, it would quickly become apparent to both of you that they really don’t know as much about a toaster as they thought they did.

Research about teacher knowledge supports this notion when it comes to reading instruction. Common perception is that being a skilled reader (i.e. knowing how to read) is qualification enough to be a skilled teacher of reading. However, being a skilled reader does not mean one has an explicit awareness of the structures of written and spoken language that is necessary to effectively teach reading. Over the years, Louisa Moats has administered many surveys to teachers with varying levels of experience in order to measure their perceived and actual knowledge of concepts that are essential for effective reading instruction (Moats, 1995; Moats & Foorman, 2003). Teachers taking the survey were asked how confident they were in their ability to teach reading then they were asked specific questions about reading. Moats found some major gaps in teacher knowledge about reading instruction and understanding of the structure of the English language.

Results from these surveys have consistently demonstrated that teachers show a lack of understanding of the following concepts related to literacy knowledge and instruction:

• the difference between speech sounds and the letters that represent the sound
• the ability to identify individual sounds (phonemes) in words
• the ability to recognize a word’s regularity or irregularity (i.e. knowledge of the letter combinations (graphemes) that represent sounds (phonemes) in common words
• identification of spelling units such as digraphs, blends, and silent-letter spellings
• syllable division and spelling patterns in syllables
• recognition of basic parts of speech

The surveys also showed that teachers had difficulty recognizing when students struggled with phonology, orthography, or syntactical elements of reading when analyzing work samples or assessments. This lack of understanding logically leads to misinformed attempts to teach reading.

Moats and other researchers have come to the convergent conclusion that most teachers are ill prepared to explicitly teach reading and writing as demonstrated by a lack of knowledge concerning the phonology and orthography of the English language. Conversely, teachers who have a strong knowledge of phonology and orthography as well as the ability to apply these concepts have students who have higher levels of literacy achievement (Cunningham, et. al., 2004; Spear-Swerling, 2004). This especially applies to teachers who are teaching in the primary grades where literacy acquisition is critical.

In this free 30-day online workshop teachers can learn how to explain the phonology and orthography of the English language. ›

References

Cunningham, A.E., Perry, K.E., Stanovich, K.E., & Stanovich, P.J. (2004). Disciplinary knowledge of K-3 teachers and their knowledge calibration in the domain of early literacy. Annals of Dyslexia, 54, 139-172.

Moats, L.C. (1995). The missing foundation in teacher education. American Educator (Special Issue: Learning to Read: Schooling’s First Mission), 19 (2), 9, 43-51.

Moats, L.C., & Foorman, B.R. (2003). Measuring teachers’ content knowledge of language and reading. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 23–45.

Spear-Swerling, L. & Brucker, A.O. (2004). Preparing novice teachers to develop basic reading and spelling skills in children. Annals of Dyslexia, 54, 332-364.

Rozenblit, L. and Keil, F. (2002), The misunderstood limits of folk science: an illusion of explanatory depth. Cognitive Science, 26: 521–562. doi: 10.1207/s15516709cog2605_1